Ethics and Corruption in Cycling

Ethics and Corruption in Cycling Ethics in Sport- The Case of Cycling Introduction The Higher Moral and Ethical Ground Conclusion Bibliography Introduction As one of the world’s more demanding sports, cycling extracts as well as expects a maximum performance from its professional participants. It pits them directly against the world’s best in the sport on almost every outing, thus creating a field of competition whereby they are judged, and rated in almost every outing against the leading stars. Unlike other team sports whereby one’s performance is measured, and or gauged against those of a like skill or position, cycling does not provide this cushion or hedge. One’s performance comes under direct scrutiny each, and every outing with time sheet comparisons to indicate one’s standing, be it the mountain climbing segment, sprints, or overall balanced performance through a stage or Tour. The demands of strength, endurance, intestinal fortitude, and mental stamina that is spread in most cases over days, and in the case of the Tour de France, weeks, creates an atmosphere of pressure to perform that is unkno wn in any other type of professional sport. Dr. Alejandro Lucia (Cheung, 2003), a world recognized authority in the physiology of professional cycling, has stated that the training as well as discipline required to participate exact a high mental toll that is also a factor of the high stress of physical conditioning as well as genetics. As would be expected, each country with major participants in professional cycling has its own cycling federation, however, the Union Europà ©enne de Cyclisme, European Cycling Union, is the confederation that oversees the Union Cycliste Internationale, International Cycling Union, which is the professional organization that oversees professional cycling events globally (UEC, 2007). This organization has the responsibility for the issuance of licenses to professional cyclists, along with the enforcement of rules and regulations, which in this instance includes doping (UCI, 2007a). The professional cycling devisions that the the UCI oversees are road cycling events, track, mountain bike, cyclo- cross, BMX, Trials, indoor cycling, and para-cycling (UCI, 2007a). The International Cycling Union is a non-profit-making organization that was founded on 14 April 1900, and is headquartered in Aigle, Switzerland (UCI, 2007b). The organization’s aims represent: The regulation of professional cycling on the international level, The promotion of cycling internationally, in every country as well as at all levels, The organization of professional cycling World Championships for all cycling divisions, The encouragement as well as maintenance of friendly and professional relationships between all cycling divisions, The promotion of sporting ethics as well as fair play, The representation of professional cycling along with the defence of its interests internationally, And the collaboration with the International Olympic Committee concerning cycling events held in the Olympics (UCI, 2007b). It is item 5. the promotion of sporting ethics as well as fair play, along with morals that represents the focus of this examination. And in keeping with such, the International Cycling Union has adopted a ‘Code of Ethics’ that defines and specifies the conduct of action, and rules governing all professional cycling events (UCI, 2007c). It specifies that all executive, management, administrative, cyclists, and other individuals and associations in any way affiliated as well as coming under the aegis of the International Cycling Union must adhere to said ‘Code of Ethics (UCI, 2007c). It sets forth that on a daily basis, all participants must comply with the rules of the ‘Code of Ethics’ with respect to (UCI, 2007c): human dignity, principles of nondiscrimmination concerning race, gender, ethic origin, gender, philosophical as well as political opinions, religion, marital staus, or any other forms of discrimination for whatever reason, the principle of nonviolence in any form as well as the exerting of any type of pressure, and or harassment by any means, specify physical, professional, mental, and sexual, the maintenance of integrity, to hold the priority of the best interests of the sport on a daily basis, to hold the priority of the interests of the sport as well as its athletes regarding financial interests, to protect the environment, to maintain neurality in political issues, and Olympism. Within this ‘Code’ it is required that all parties uphold the principles as well as interests of professional cycling as well as refraining from any behaviour that might jeopardize the sport, and or the reputation of the UCI (UCI, 2007c). Within this framework is the important concept of ‘integrity’, which means â€Å"the firm adherance to a code of †¦ moral or artistic values †¦ (Interactive Playground, 2007). The preceding is specially inportant in the context of this examination as it focuses on the ‘ethical and moral questions’ of drug use in the sport. Integrity represents a skill that is learned over time (Interactive Playground, 2007). As a part of the UCI ‘Code of Ethics’, integrity, under Article 4, is stated as the fact that all parties associated with the UCI shall therefore refrain from the asking for, acceptance of, and or proposal, either directly or indirectly, that any payment as well as commission, along with any advantages and or services of any type that has not been agreed to or authorized by the UCI shall not be undertaken (UCI, 2007c). Furthermore, under inetgrity it also states that when any type of offers of the aforementioned variety are made, that the UCI be so informed (UCI, 2007c). Said conditions under integrity, Article 5, go on to add that parties as covered under their association with the UCI can only accept symbolic gifts that are bestowed in the spirit of freindship as a matter of local custom, and that any other types of gifts are to be forwarded to the UCI (UCI, 2007c). The ‘Code’ goes on to cover such fields as ‘Conflict of Interests’, and Confidentiality’ in laying out specific terms of conduct (UCI, 2007c). In keeping with the foregoing, the UCI has established an ‘Ethics Commission’, that has been granted authority in the following areas (UCI, 2007c): to oversee and ensure that all facets of the ‘Code’ are respected, to field and receive complaints with regard to any infringement to the ‘Code’, to provide advice as well as assistance concerning ethical matters in all phases of the ‘Code’, to provide advice on the avoidance as well as resolution of conflicts of interests, to recommend sanctions as a result of offences against the ‘Code’, to set forth measures for the application and adherence to the ‘Code’, and to put forth proposals recommending programmes to teach and advise on ethics. The foregoing represents an extremely important facet in this discussion in that the UCI has taken an active stance in the areas of ethics, and morals, as defined by integrity. The foregoing represents a critical aspect in the examination of breaches, and scandals that have befallen the sport of cycling that have made the news recently, particularly in the instance of the most recent winner of the Tour de France. The Consequences of Individual Actions As indicated in the UCI’s ‘Code of Ethics’ as well as by the actions taken by this organization as far back as the 1960s when an article representing doping was introduced into the organization’s rules, drugs have been a key consideration in ensuring that a level as well as trustworthy representation of the sport was, and is a part of its operation (UCI, 2007d). The preceding focus was further enhanced by the following subsequent rules, and regulations (UCI, 2007d: in 1966 a similar article, on doping as referred to in 1960, was added to the UCI Technical Guide, in 1967, the UCI published its first list representing substances that were prohibited, in 1967 the UCI put into motion the first sanctions taken against riders that refused to undergo testing, 1967 represented the publishing of the first Medical Control Rules, which were the forerunner to the Anti-doping Rules The above historical understanding of the stance, and active programmes of the UCI is important in the context of recent events on doping in the sport of cycling. This examination shall cover the most noteworthy of these types of events, noting that doping issues have been a part of individual athlete rule broaching since the 1960’s (UCI, 2007d). The Tour de France represents professional cycling’s most premier, and prestigious event. It’s â€Å"†¦scale and social and cultural significance demands the academic attention that it has not always received †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Dauncey and Hare, 2003, p. 1). Covering in excess of 4,000 kilometres throughout France, and a few neighbouring countries, millions of on-hand spectators as well as hundreds of millions across the globe via television, and other forms of media follow the event. First conducted in 1903, the Tour has been held as a pinnacle of sporting fairness that shows athletes at their best over three weeks of grueling competition through mountains, and flat stages that average around 150 plus kilometres per day (Dauncey and Hare, 2003, p. 228). Waddington (1998, p. 161) advises â€Å"†¦that a good Tour takes one year off your life, and when you finish in a bad state, they reckon three years†¦ You cant describe to a normal person how tired you fee l†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . They add that â€Å"†¦fatigue starts to kick in on the Tour after ten days if youre in good shape, and after five days if youre not in your best condition physically† (Waddington, 1998, p. 161). Waddington (1998, p. 161) adds that â€Å"Then, it all just gets worse and worse, you dont sleep so much, so you dont recover as well from the days racing, so you go into your reserves, you get more knackered, so you sleep less†¦ Its simply a vicious circle†. Robert Millar, a Scottish cycling professional who rode in the Tour, goes on to state that â€Å"It takes two weeks to recover from a good Tour, three months to recover from a bad one† (Waddington, 1998, p. 161). This event is being utilized in the context of this examination as a result of the intense competition between riders to look good on the world stage in cycling’s biggest event. The preceding translates into the fact that the â€Å"†¦Tour de France cannot avoid seeing an increase in the demands on competitors with the ever-growing importance of television, whose systematic coverage of every stage has also brought in, on top of the necessary battle for the stage win, the necessary battle for permanent presence in front of the TV cameras, therefore making races ever faster† (Dauncey and Hare, 2003, p. 229). They add that there is a â€Å"†¦ long-standing presence of doping in the Tour brings us back to the excessive nature of the race† (Dauncey and Hare, 2003, p. 229). The first instance of doping in the Tour de France occurred in 1924 as a result of the confessions of the Pelissier brothers who admitted using â€Å"†¦cocaine for the eyes, thats chl oroform for the gums† † (Dauncey and Hare, 2003, p. 230). The next significant doping issue occurred in 1955 when Tour riders Jean Mallejac, Ferdi Kubler and Charly Gaul† admitted to taking substances (Dauncey and Hare, 2003, p. 229-230). Doping issues were subsequently repeated in † (Dauncey and Hare, 2003, p. 230): 1966 representing the first year in which â€Å"†¦-doping tests were carried out in the Tour de France †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Dauncey and Hare, 2003, p. 230). In 1975 the first rider tested positive for doping, In 1977 another incident was uncovered, In 1980, there was another issue of a rider testing positive for drugs. But, the most noted example came in 1998 when the winner of the Tour, Marco Pantini tested positive in a subsequent race called the Tour of Italy in 1999 (Appleyard, 2006). In 2000, Frenchman Richard Virengue, a celebrated rider in the Tour, admitted to using drugs during a Festina trial (Dauncey and Hare, 2003, p. 232), with the biggest scandal taking place in 2006 when major Tour riders Jan Ullrich, a winner of the Tour in 1997, and Ivan Basso where forced to withdraw from the event (Leicester, 2006). But, for the first time in the history of the Tour de France in 2006, the winner was later declared ineligible and stripped of his title after testing positively for drugs (Bagratuni, 2006). Subsequent testing after the Tour was completed found that Landis tested positive for the 17th stage to Morzine that he won in what has been termed â€Å"†¦ spectacular fashion after a long ride over 130 kilometres †¦Ã¢â‚¬  that included â€Å"†¦ three major alpine peaks† ( Bagratuni, 2006). The discovery wound up causing the cancellation of a later racing event in the Netherlands as well as Denmark, and set off an international furor over doping that had been building for years (cbc.ca, 2006a). The scandals brought back to the forefront past cycling scandals, as a result of the magnitude of the 2006 Tour winner being stripped of his crown. A lot of journalists stated that the 1998 scandals nearly killed the Tour’s integrity as well as value when an employee of the Festina team was arrested with a carload of â€Å"†¦ performance enhancing drugs †¦Ã¢â‚¬  that included one called erythropoietin (EOP), which is â€Å"†¦ a hormone that helps the blood carry more oxygen †¦Ã¢â‚¬  which thus lets riders carry on longer as well as faster (cbc.ca, 2006a). That incident lead to the arrest of six members of the Festina cycling team, out of nine utilized in the Tour, who admitted to the use of drugs that aided in their performance, along with the leader of the Credit Agricole team Christophe Moreau, who later in that same year â€Å"†¦ tested positive for anabolic steroids† (cbc.ca, 2006a). The litany continues with the following incidents as well as allegations (cbc.ca, 2006a): 2002 saw Stefano Garzelli, the â€Å"†¦ leader of the Vini Caldirola team †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (cbc.ca, 2006) tested positive for probenecid. The preceding is a diuretic that is often used to mask the presence of other drugs. 2003 saw Igor Gonzalez, a Spanish cyclist, being banned from the Tour de France after he tested positive for an anti-asthma. 2004 saw the police in France seize EPO, amphetamines as well as male hormones, and the arrest to Cofidis team cyclists. Lance Armstrong, the most celebrated Tour winner was accused of doping allegations, and later cleared. The preceding has damaged the reputation, and sporting fairness of cycling, and represents a long list of doping scandals that have also rocked other sports. The spectacular performances of the 1970s, and 80s East German swimming teams saw a large number of stellar performers later come down with negative health and side effects â€Å"†¦such as liver cancer, organ damage, psychological defects, hormonal changes and infertility †¦Ã¢â‚¬  that called into question that they might have taken performance enhancing drugs (cbc.ca, 2006b). Kornelia Ender, the winner of four gold and the silver gold medals during the 1972, and 76 Olympics revealed she had been taking drug injections since she was 13 (cbc.ca, 2006b). Her situation mirrors that of other East German swimmers Barbara Krause, four gold and silver medals, Carola Nitschke, and others (cbc.ca, 2006b). Incidents of doping scandals hit the 1983 Pam Am Games that was held in Caracas, Venezula, U.S. Track and Field, professio nal baseball and football in the United States, and a host of other sports (cbc.ca, 2007a). The pressures to perform in all manner of sports is clear, and in the case of professional cycling has been particularly damaging owing to the international nature of the sport. The Higher Moral and Ethical Ground The preceding examples as well as histories of cycling, and other scandals have left the sport in a serious state of affairs. These events, and created a situation that has put â€Å",,, cycling at a fork in the road† (Case and Sachs, 2006). The failure of Floyd Landis to pass drug tests after winning the Tour de France resulted in the disbanding of the entire team as sponsors canceled their contracts (Abt, 2006). Gibbs (2000, p. 4) opens up a broad range of considerations in the case of ethics that takes into account that it, ethics, brings with it the responsibility for others. He states that ethics also takes into account that â€Å"We also are responsible for each other in a mutual way when justice requires us to become present, one-to-another† (Gibbs, 2000. p. 4). A situation that is made even more the case in cycling as a team is built to promote one rider, and when that rider or members of the team fails, the entire team suffers. The case of the collapse of Floyd Landis’ team after the 2006 Tour scandal is evidence of this point. Gibbs (2000, p. 4) stated the foregoing above, which in a team sport such as cycling makes such a bind more important. He adds that â€Å"†¦we are bound asymmetrically to each other, and ethical mutuality is possible only because of that excess of responsibility† (Gibbs, 2000. p. 4). And add that such represents a community whereby the actions of one affect the standings of others. As a community, cycling represents a prime example of the foregoing. Mottram (2003, p. 52) brings forth an interesting proposition that â€Å"The motivating factors for drug misuse do not necessarily lie in the hands of the athlete†. He (Mottram, 2003, p. 52) points to a number of studies whereby â€Å"†¦the majority of athletes, coaches, medical practitioners and others involved in sport do not favour the use of performance-enhancing drugs†. There is an ‘however’ he states, which represents that â€Å"†¦these results may reflect the respondents ethical and moral attitudes to the problem, but in practice the pressures of competition may compel them to take a more pragmatic approach to drug taking† (Mottram, 2003, p. 52). Gibbs (2000, p. 4) adds to the foregoing in stating that â€Å"†¦ethics are the will, conscious intentions, deliberate choices, or the perfection of an individual rational life†. Sports, and in this instance cycling, embody rules of fair play, ethics, and other value systems that the public idealizes, and seeks to believe in a world of uncertainty, corporate, and political corruption. Fans, and more importantly children, tend to view winning athletes as role models, thus when that trust is shattered it damages not just the individual, but the sport as a whole. Dauncey and Hare (2003, p. 182) describe this as â€Å"The spectators ethical analysis of the conduct of their favorite riders is arguably more complex than that of the Tour organizers (limited to the rules of the race) or that of the French state (limited to French law and Republican values towards sport) or that of cycle sports international ruling bodies such as the Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI)†. Conclusion Ethics is a concept, ideal, and principle that is rooted in moral philosophy. Plato’s dialogues delves into the question â€Å"†¦of the subjectivity or objectivity of morality provides the focus for the earliest complete works of philosophy †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Graham, 2004, p. 1). Our belief, and use of moral values represents an evolution of the human spirit that is traced back to Plato, and his teacher Socrates. They held that â€Å"†¦ there is a radical difference between the world of facts, and the world of values, between physis and nomos to use the Greek words, the difference being that when it comes to matters of value, the concepts of true and false have no meaningful application† (Graham, 2004. p. 1). Thus, Graham (2004, p. 1) holds that â€Å"By implication, then, in ethics there is no scope for proof and demonstration as there is in science and mathematics; ethical argument is a matter of rhetoric, which is to say, of persuading people to believe what you believe rather than proving to them that the beliefs you hold are true†. Rist (2001. p. 1) states that there is a core concern in ethics that is â€Å"†¦widely admitted to be a crisis in contemporary Western debate about ethical foundations†. He tells us that we are members of a larger community and that what binds us together in a livable society is the belief, and practice of ethics as a matter of trust (Rist, 2001. p. 205). He (Rist, 2001. p. 119) brings up the foundational principle of â€Å"†¦the problem of the relation between fairness and justice (in what circumstances and by what criteria should people be treated equally†, and that rules are seemingly needed if fairness as well as rights â€Å"†¦ are to be enforced†. He continues that ethics refers to the good life for humans as a whole, and that morality â€Å"†¦is limited to what we are told we ought, or more probably what we ought not to do† (Rist, 2001, p. 120). Hare (1997, p. 1) tells us that ethics can also be termed as a moral philosophy whereby it represents the point that â€Å"†¦philosophers come closest to practical issues in morals and politics†. Outka and Reeder (1993, p. 29) advise that the idea representing moral philosophy is and has been central to the history of philosophy and figures prominently with regard to â€Å"†¦recent moral, legal, and political thought and action†. They bring forth the interesting proposition that â€Å"†¦there is agreement on very general principles †¦ (of morality) †¦ such as the Golden Rule, and disagreement over more specific precepts, or that there is agreement over general moral ends and disagreement over particular means or purely factual considerations†. Morality represents the concept of does and don’ts, and that the â€Å"†¦mark of a civilized society is that its members share this concept, for only because they have it do civilized people acknowledge that human conduct everywhere is properly judged by standards accessible to members of societies other than their own, whose opinions they are not entitled to ignore† (Outka and Reeder, 1993, p. 29). The preceding is central to this discussion of the ethical, and moral questions of drug use in cycling. The ‘Code of Ethics’ as defined by the International Cycling Union has nine key points, representing (UCI, 2007c): human dignity, principles of nondiscrimmination concerning race, gender, ethic origin, gender, philosophical as well as political opinions, religion, marital staus or any other forms of discrimination for whatever reason, the principle of nonviolence in any form, as well as the exerting of any type of pressure and or harassment by any meas, specify phyical, professional, mental and sexual, the maintenance of integrity, to hold the priority of the best interests of the sport on a daily basis, to hold the priority of the interests of the sport as well as its athletes regarding financial interests, to protec the environment, to maintain neurality in political issues, and Olympism. The foregoing harkens back to Gibbs’ (2004, p. 4) statement that we are â€Å"†¦responsible for each other in a mutual way when justice requires us to become present, one-to-another†. He adds that â€Å"†¦we are bound asymmetrically to each other, and ethical mutuality is possible only because of that excess of responsibility†. That sense of community represents what the International Cycling Union is, and thus the highly damaging effects of individual actions to the whole. As the overall governing body of cycling, the International Cycling Union seeks to make these principles a reality, however, it has failed to manifest these into the consciousness of some of its members, which represents a real source for concern. It, the taking of drugs, has been stated by the International Olympic Committee in the following manner (Mottram, 2003, p. 52-53): â€Å"†¦ the use of doping agents in sport is both unhealthy and contrary to the ethics of sport, †¦it is necessary to protect the physical and spiritual health of athletes, the values of fair play and of competition, the integrity and unity of sport, and the rights of those who take part in it at whatever level†. It, drug use, represents a condition that â€Å"†¦is contrary to the very principles upon which sport is based† (Mottram, 2003, p. 53). Dubin (1990) states that â€Å"Sport is considered as character building, teaching the virtues of dedication, perseverance, endurance and self-discipline†. He adds the important observations that â€Å"sport helps us to learn from defeat as much as from victory, and team sports foster a spirit of co-operation and interdependence†¦import(ing) something of moral and social values and†¦integrating us as individuals, to bring about a healthy, integrated society drug abuse would have no place in sport† (Dubin, 1990). Thus, the question, in light of the preceding examples of drug use, is why so many athletes have resorted to cheating†, and â€Å"Why are the rules that govern sport often regarded as obstacles to be overcome or circumvented rather than as regulations designed to create equality of competitive opport unity and to define the parameters of the sport?† (Dubin, 1990). The unfair advantage of the use of drugs in sport lessens the outcome, and masks the potential of those who have superior abilities that are hidden by cheaters. It reduces the concept of sport itself, which is defined as â€Å"an activity, pastime, and competition †¦ â€Å" (Allwords.com, 2007). The U.S. Anti-Doping Agency (USADA, 2007) states â€Å"The spirit of sport means competing fairly and performing to the best of your abilitythe pursuit of excellence with honor†. The international implications of doping in sport has drawn the attention of the General Conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO, 2005) which drafted doping in sports, whereby it stated that â€Å"†¦ sport should play an important role in the protection of health, in moral, cultural and physical education and in promoting international understanding and peace†. The preceding is a broader application of the meaning and purpose of sport than addressed in this examination, but nevertheless is an important facet in the understanding of the attention and implications of sport in our lives, as stated by the U.S. Anti-Doping Agency (USADA, 2007). Such higher ideals were and are behind the International Cycling Union’s ‘Code of Ethics’, and the personal as well as individual responsibility of each and every person as well as organization affiliated or associated with it. Loland (2002, p. 143) advises that â₠¬Å"†¦fair play is commonly understood as a set of norms for rule conformity and justice†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . He continues that (Loland, 2002, p. 144): Fairness, represents when â€Å"Parties voluntarily engaged in sport competitions ought to act in accordance with the shared ethos of the competitions if this ethos is just†. And that fair play provides for an equal platform of rules, regulations, methodologies and systems whereby â€Å"†¦competitors are given equal opportunity to perform by eliminating or compensating for significant inequalities that the competitors cannot influence in any significant way and for which they cannot be held responsible†. Loland (2002, p. 144) states that unless there is fair play, then the performance of athletes is not based upon talent, but some hidden advantages that corrupt the outcome and prompts inequality. The use of substances to enhance sport’s performance represents an issue that is as old as sport itself (Mottram, 2003. p. 307). Fair play is the operative concept behind the rules and regulations of the International Cycling Union, and is the ethical and moral foundation. The efforts of the ICU, as put forth by McNamee and Parry (1998) is that â€Å"†¦ the moral structure of sport in terms of an implicit social contract (and thus to offer a rationale for why we should condemn cheating and so forth) needs further careful exploration through studies of both the history of sport and the contract tradition†. Midgley (1974. p. 143) continues that â€Å"the social contract is just one sort of analogy for underlying moral structures that seem to bind societies together, as a co nceptual tool used by the prophets of the Enlightenment to derive political obligation from below rather than from above†. Fairness and justice go to the root of modern civilization as the basis for order, and cooperation. Hare (1970. p. 179) argues that it is â€Å"†¦our duty to obey the rule always keep your promises is simply part of a game (the institution of promising, in this case), and that we could just as easily decide not to play, in which case the duty would disappear†. He concludes that â€Å"For unless one accepts this principle, one is not a subscribing member of the institution which it constitutes, and therefore cannot be compelled logically to accept the institutional facts which it generates.† (Hare, 1970. p. 179). The preceding are the principles and reasons for the existence of the International Cycling Union and its binding ‘Code of Ethics’ on its members. It is the duty of these members to uphold and adhere to the principles of this ‘Code’ as it represents the foundation for public trust and belief in the fact that the outcome of competitions reflects honest and accurate performances. The ‘Play the Game Conference’ held on 10 November 2005 issued a declaration that best sums up that reasons for fairness, honest, integrity, morals and ethics in sport (Pro Cycling News, 2005). It calls for the organizing bodies within sports to: Ensure that corruption, is eliminated from sports, And that the integrity of sports management is upheld by maintaining ethical behaviour, Through a demonstration of commitments to counter corruption. Corruption in sport represents any activity that changes the outcome from what it would have been if everyone adhered to the rules. It thus then provides the public with a true recording of performances in an arena they can trust and believe in. The pressures to perform mean little if such is aided by unfair advantages that skew results, thus it is the duty of the monitoring organization to enforce the rules as strictly as possible to minimize cheating, as well as to administer strong drug testing. The community of cycling is larger than the athletes and members of the International Cycling Union. It includes every spectator that has and will ever watch the sport. In light of the recent and numerous scandals, much needs to be done to re-establish a platform of trust that the public can look ate and believe that the ills of the past, are in fact in the past. Such will restore cycling to its former prominence, and help to further bound the community of athletes and fans to fair play, e thics and morality. Bibliography Abt, S. (2006) Cycling: Shunned by sponsors, Landis’ team dies. 15 August 2006. Retrieved on 17 April 2007 from http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/08/15/sports/bike.php Allwords.com (2007) sport. Retrieved on 18 April 2007 from http://www.allwords.com/query.php?SearchType=3Keyword=sportgoquery=Find+it!Language=ENG Appleyard, B. (2006) Drugs and Debauchery. 3 July 2006. Vol. 135. New Statesman Bagratuni, J. (2006) Tour winner Floyd Landis tests positive in latest cycling shock. 27 July 2006. Retrieved on 17 April 2006 from

Government and Politics - Time to Stop Lying Essay -- Argumentative Pe

Time to Stop Lying A great number of young adults have lost interest in the political system of this country. It is really quite simple- the power structure is not working in our favor, we see no great future achievements in legislation or politics, and we would much rather put our energies towards more fulfilling ends. The nature of politics in this country has progressed to a corrupt web of lies and deception that clearly favors the white male who spends his life working nine to five and has given his voice, his freedom, his manhood over to his government. Â   Those of us who refuse to succumb to this lifestyle find ourselves constantly battling to maintain even a base level standard of living. We have not chosen to close our eyes to the social conditions that surround us, and we have not chosen to be pretentious suburbians living life in a bubble of our own creation, fooling ourselves into believing that words and legislative acts will solve the many problems of these times. Â   We do not have much faith in the legislative system in America. We study our history, and realize that nothing has really changed, despite numerous amendments, acts, and programs. We find these to be simple attempts to pacify the masses in a scheme of the largest proportions to launder our riches and our wealth. Â   You ask why we do not vote or participate actively in politics. I ask why should we choose betwee... ...ve us some skills to enter into this rat race you have started. Give us computers, teach us to use them, and help us in our individual pursuits. Stop sucking us dry with taxes and fees, and give us financial assistance to start our independent pursuits. Repay the descendants of slaves and repay the Native Americans. Find some justice for the people of this country. Educate us on truth and the world. Don't shut us in a box, ignorant of the world community, perpetrating white supremacy and western "democracy." Give us something worthwhile to vote for and we might start showing up at the polls. Don't be afraid to admit the wrongs of the past and present; that is the only way to grow and move into the future. Â  

Energy from Peanut and Pea

Energy from Peanut and Pea Shawn lam 28/10/2011 Hypothesis I think that the peanut will release more Energy, as it is has more oil which will generate more energy. While the pea does not have as much oil as the peanut, so the pea will make less energy. Variables Independent variable: Pea, Peanut Dependent variable: Temperature Controlled variable: Beaker volume, Bunsen burner Equipment Beaker, water, Bunsen burner, pea, peanut, thermometer, toothpick (holding food), heat tile, grabber Procedure 1. First get equipment 2. Setup equipment 3.Put water in beaker, then grab with a grabber 4. Burn peanut/ pea with toothpick 5. Put the food under beaker 6. Record Temperature Result Table 1: Looking at the first table, the amount of water added to the beaker was 20ml. There were 4 trials for each food, except for the pea. Type of Food| Heat ( °C)| | Trial| Average| | 1| 2| 3| 4| | Peanut| 20| 35| 50| 59| 41| Pea| 8. 5| 5| 31|   | 14. 83333| Discussion This Experiment wasn’t really successful, as there weren’t 4 trials for the pea. Also some Peanuts/Pea were much bigger than other, next time I will try to choose the sizes more carefully next time.The peanut had a large range of temperature, this tells us either the thermometer is broken or the test was not conducted well. Maybe, the Pea could be changed with another food, as it frequently run out of energy in the middle of a test. Which caused the problem of recording its temprature. Next time maybe there should be better lighter, so that there wouldn’t be a problem with burning the food. There could be less people disturbing experiment, so that more results could be recorded. For example, when people talk, the sound wave blows out the fire. All of this results that the informaion, wasn’t really accurate. ConclusionAs you could see the peanuts average Temperature was higher then the pea, as the pea has less oil then the peanut. The amount of oil on the Peanut is far greater, as resulting m ore energy released from the peanut. While on the other hand, the Pea has less oil which was shown as there was less energy. This shows that the Peanut have at least 3 times more energy then the Pea. Further study Does more oil cause more energy released? â€Å"YES† it does. More oil will help to relese more energy, this is shown as today, many cars rely on oil to run. Bibliography http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Peanut#Peanut_oil http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Pea

Binary Tree - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 15 Words: 4587 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2017/09/20 Category Business Essay Type Argumentative essay Did you like this example? Binary Trees Page: 1 Binary Trees by Nick Parlante This article introduces the basic concepts of binary trees, and then works through a series of practice problems with solution code in C/C++ and Java. Binary trees have an elegant recursive pointer structure, so they are a good way to learn recursive pointer algorithms. Contents Section 1. Binary Tree Structure a quick introduction to binary trees and the code that operates on them Section 2. Binary Tree Problems practice problems in increasing order of difficulty Section 3. C Solutions solution code to the problems for C and C++ programmers Section 4. Java versions how binary trees work in Java, with solution code Stanford CS Education Library #110 This is article #110 in the Stanford CS Education Library. This and other free CS materials are available at the library (https://cslibrary. stanford. edu/). That people seeking education should have the opportunity to find it. This article may be used, reproduced, excerpt ed, or sold so long as this paragraph is clearly reproduced. Copyright 2000-2001, Nick Parlante, nick. [emailprotected] stanford. edu. Related CSLibrary Articles Linked List Problems (https://cslibrary. stanford. edu/105/) a large collection of linked list problems using various pointer techniques (while this binary tree article concentrates on recursion) Pointer and Memory (https://cslibrary. stanford. edu/102/) basic concepts of pointers and memory The Great Tree-List Problem (https://cslibrary. stanford. edu/109/) a great pointer recursion problem that uses both trees and lists Section 1 Introduction To Binary Trees A binary tree is made of nodes, where each node contains a left pointer, a right pointer, and a data element. The root pointer points to the topmost node in the tree. The left and right pointers recursively point to smaller subtrees on either side. A null pointer represents a binary tree with no elements the empty tree. The formal recursive definition is: a bi nary tree is either empty (represented by a null pointer), or is made of a single node, where the left and right pointers (recursive definition ahead) each point to a binary tree. ttp://cslibrary. stanford. edu/110/ BinaryTrees. html Binary Trees Page: 2 A binary search tree (BST) or ordered binary tree is a type of binary tree where the nodes are arranged in order: for each node, all elements in its left subtree are less-or-equal to the node (). The tree shown above is a binary search tree the root node is a 5, and its left subtree nodes (1, 3, 4) are 5. Recursively, each of the subtrees must also obey the binary search tree constraint: in the (1, 3, 4) subtree, the 3 is the root, the 1 3. Watch out for the exact wording in the problems a binary search tree is different from a binary tree. The nodes at the bottom edge of the tree have empty subtrees and are called leaf nodes (1, 4, 6) while the others are internal nodes (3, 5, 9). Binary Search Tree Niche Basically, binary sea rch trees are fast at insert and lookup. The next section presents the code for these two algorithms. On average, a binary search tree algorithm can locate a node in an N node tree in order lg(N) time (log base 2). Therefore, binary search trees are good for dictionary problems where the code inserts and looks up information indexed by some key. The lg(N) behavior is the average case its possible for a particular tree to be much slower depending on its shape. Strategy Some of the problems in this article use plain binary trees, and some use binary search trees. In any case, the problems concentrate on the combination of pointers and recursion. (See the articles linked above for pointer articles that do not emphasize recursion. ) For each problem, there are two things to understand The node/pointer structure that makes up the tree and the code that manipulates it The algorithm, typically recursive, that iterates over the tree When thinking about a binary tree problem, its ofte n a good idea to draw a few little trees to think about the various cases. https://cslibrary. stanford. edu/110/ BinaryTrees. html Binary Trees Page: 3 Typical Binary Tree Code in C/C++ As an introduction, well look at the code for the two most basic binary search tree operations lookup() and insert(). The code here works for C or C++. Java programers can read the discussion here, and then look at the Java versions in Section 4. In C or C++, the binary tree is built with a node type like this struct node { int data; struct node* left; struct node* right; } Lookup() Given a binary search tree and a target value, search the tree to see if it contains the target. The basic pattern of the lookup() code occurs in many recursive tree algorithms: deal with the base case where the tree is empty, deal with the current node, and then use recursion to deal with the subtrees. If the tree is a binary search tree, there is often some sort of less-than test on the node to decide if the recu rsion should go left or right. /* Given a binary tree, return true if a node with the target data is found in the tree. Recurs down the tree, chooses the left or right branch by comparing the target to each node. */ static int lookup(struct node* node, int target) { // 1. Base case == empty tree // in that case, the target is not found so return false if (node == NULL) { return(false); } else { // 2. ee if found here if (target == node-;data) return(true); else { // 3. otherwise recur down the correct subtree if (target ; node-;data) return(lookup(node-;left, target)); else return(lookup(node-;right, target)); } } } The lookup() algorithm could be written as a while-loop that iterates down the tree. Our version uses recursion to help prepare you for the problems below that require recursion. Pointer Changing Code There is a common problem with pointer intensive code: what if a function needs to change one of the pointer parameters passed to it? For example, the insert() function below may want to change the root pointer. In C and C++, one solution uses pointers-to-pointers (aka reference parameters). Thats a fine technique, but here we will use the simpler technique that a function that wishes to change a pointer passed to it will return the new value of the pointer to the caller. The caller is responsible for using the new value. Suppose we have a change() function https://cslibrary. stanford. edu/110/ BinaryTrees. html Binary Trees Page: 4 that may change the the root, then a call to change() will look like this / suppose the variable root points to the tree root = change(root); We take the value returned by change(), and use it as the new value for root. This construct is a little awkward, but it avoids using reference parameters which confuse some C and C++ programmers, and Java does not have reference parameters at all. This allows us to focus on the recursion instead of the pointer mechanics. (For lots of problems that use reference parameters, see CS Library #105, Linked List Problems, https://cslibrary. stanford. du/105/). Insert() Insert() given a binary search tree and a number, insert a new node with the given number into the tree in the correct place. The insert() code is similar to lookup(), but with the complication that it modifies the tree structure. As described above, insert() returns the new tree pointer to use to its caller. Calling insert() with the number 5 on this tree 2 / 1 10 returns the tree 2 / 1 / 5 The solution shown here introduces a newNode() helper function that builds a single node. The base-case/recursion structure is similar to the structure in lookup() each call checks for the NULL case, looks at the node at hand, and then recurs down the left or right subtree if needed. /* Helper function that allocates a new node with the given data and NULL left and right pointers. */ struct node* NewNode(int data) { struct node* node = new(struct node); // new is like malloc node-data = data; node-left = NUL L; node-right = NULL; return(node); } 10 /* Give a binary search tree and a number, inserts a new node with the given number in the correct place in the tree. Returns the new root pointer which the caller should then use (the standard trick to avoid using reference parameters). */ struct node* insert(struct node* node, int data) { https://cslibrary. stanford. edu/110/ BinaryTrees. html Binary Trees Page: 5 // 1. If the tree is empty, return a new, single node if (node == NULL) { return(newNode(data)); } else { // 2. Otherwise, recur down the tree if (data data) node-left = insert(node-left, data); else node-right = insert(node-right, data); return(node); // return the (unchanged) node pointer } } The shape of a binary tree depends very much on the order that the nodes are inserted. In particular, if the nodes are inserted in increasing order (1, 2, 3, 4), the tree nodes just grow to the right leading to a linked list shape where all the left pointers are NULL. A similar thing happens if the nodes are inserted in decreasing order (4, 3, 2, 1). The linked list shape defeats the lg(N) performance. We will not address that issue here, instead focusing on pointers and recursion. Section 2 Binary Tree Problems Here are 14 binary tree problems in increasing order of difficulty. Some of the problems operate on binary search trees (aka ordered binary trees) while others work on plain binary trees with no special ordering. The next section, Section 3, shows the solution code in C/C++. Section 4 gives the background and solution code in Java. The basic structure and recursion of the solution code is the same in both languages the differences are superficial. Reading about a data structure is a fine introduction, but at some point the only way to learn is to actually try to solve some problems starting with a blank sheet of paper. To get the most out of these problems, you should at least attempt to solve them before looking at the solution. Even if your sol ution is not quite right, you will be building up the right skills. With any pointer-based code, its a good idea to make memory drawings of a a few simple cases to see how the algorithm should work. 1. build123() This is a very basic problem with a little pointer manipulation. (You can skip this problem if you are already comfortable with pointers. ) Write code that builds the following little 1-2-3 binary search tree 2 / 1 3 Write the code in three different ways a: by calling newNode() three times, and using three pointer variables b: by calling newNode() three times, and using only one pointer variable c: by calling insert() three times passing it the root pointer to build up the tree (In Java, write a build123() method that operates on the receiver to change it to be the 1-2-3 tree with the given coding constraints. See Section 4. ) struct node* build123() { 2. size() https://cslibrary. stanford. edu/110/ BinaryTrees. html Binary Trees Page: 6 This problem demonstrates simple binary tree traversal. Given a binary tree, count the number of nodes in the tree. int size(struct node* node) { 3. maxDepth() Given a binary tree, compute its maxDepth the number of nodes along the longest path from the root node down to the farthest leaf node. The maxDepth of the empty tree is 0, the maxDepth of the tree on the first page is 3. int maxDepth(struct node* node) { 4. minValue() Given a non-empty binary search tree (an ordered binary tree), return the minimum data value found in that tree. Note that it is not necessary to search the entire tree. A maxValue() function is structurally very similar to this function. This can be solved with recursion or with a simple while loop. int minValue(struct node* node) { 5. printTree() Given a binary search tree (aka an ordered binary tree), iterate over the nodes to print them out in increasing order. So the tree 4 / 2 / 1 3 5 Produces the output 1 2 3 4 5. This is known as an inorder traversal of the tree. Hint: For each node, the strategy is: recur left, print the node data, recur right. void printTree(struct node* node) { 6. printPostorder() Given a binary tree, print out the nodes of the tree according to a bottom-up postorder traversal both subtrees of a node are printed out completely before the node itself is printed, and each left subtree is printed before the right subtree. So the tree 4 / 2 / 1 3 5 Produces the output 1 3 2 5 4. The description is complex, but the code is simple. This is the sort of bottom-up traversal that would be used, for example, to evaluate an expression tree where a node is an operation like + and its subtrees are, recursively, the two subexpressions for the +. https://cslibrary. stanford. edu/110/ BinaryTrees. html Binary Trees Page: 7 void printPostorder(struct node* node) { . hasPathSum() Well define a root-to-leaf path to be a sequence of nodes in a tree starting with the root node and proceeding downward to a leaf (a node with no children). Well say that an em pty tree contains no root-to-leaf paths. So for example, the following tree has exactly four root-to-leaf paths: 5 / 4 / 11 / 7 2 8 / 13 4 1 Root-to-leaf paths: path 1: 5 4 11 7 path 2: 5 4 11 2 path 3: 5 8 13 path 4: 5 8 4 1 For this problem, we will be concerned with the sum of the values of such a path for example, the sum of the values on the 5-4-11-7 path is 5 + 4 + 11 + 7 = 27. Given a binary tree and a sum, return true if the tree has a root-to-leaf path such that adding up all the values along the path equals the given sum. Return false if no such path can be found. (Thanks to Owen Astrachan for suggesting this problem. ) int hasPathSum(struct node* node, int sum) { 8. printPaths() Given a binary tree, print out all of its root-to-leaf paths as defined above. This problem is a little harder than it looks, since the path so far needs to be communicated between the recursive calls. Hint: In C, C++, and Java, probably the best solution is to create a recursive helper fun ction printPathsRecur(node, int path[], int pathLen), where the path array communicates the sequence of nodes that led up to the current call. Alternately, the problem may be solved bottom-up, with each node returning its list of paths. This strategy works quite nicely in Lisp, since it can exploit the built in list and mapping primitives. (Thanks to Matthias Felleisen for suggesting this problem. ) Given a binary tree, print out all of its root-to-leaf paths, one per line. void printPaths(struct node* node) { . mirror() Change a tree so that the roles of the left and right pointers are swapped at every node. So the tree 4 / 2 5 / https://cslibrary. stanford. edu/110/ BinaryTrees. html Binary Trees Page: 8 1 3 is changed to 4 / 5 2 / 3 1 The solution is short, but very recursive. As it happens, this can be accomplished without changing the root node pointer, so the return-the-new-root construct is not necessary. Alternately, if you do not want to change the tree nodes, you may const ruct and return a new mirror tree based on the original tree. void mirror(struct node* node) { 10. doubleTree() For each node in a binary search tree, create a new duplicate node, and insert the duplicate as the left child of the original node. The resulting tree should still be a binary search tree. So the tree 2 / 1 3 is changed to 2 / 2 3 / / 1 3 / 1 As with the previous problem, this can be accomplished without changing the root node pointer. void doubleTree(struct node* node) { 11. sameTree() Given two binary trees, return true if they are structurally identical they are made of nodes with the same values arranged in the same way. (Thanks to Julie Zelenski for suggesting this problem. int sameTree(struct node* a, struct node* b) { 12. countTrees() This is not a binary tree programming problem in the ordinary sense its more of a math/combinatorics recursion problem that happens to use binary trees. (Thanks to Jerry Cain for suggesting this problem. ) Suppose you are buildin g an N node binary search tree with the values 1.. N. How many structurally different binary search trees are there that store those values? Write a recursive function that, given the number of distinct values, computes the number of structurally unique binary search trees that store those values. For example, https://cslibrary. stanford. edu/110/ BinaryTrees. html Binary Trees Page: 9 countTrees(4) should return 14, since there are 14 structurally unique binary search trees that store 1, 2, 3, and 4. The base case is easy, and the recursion is short but dense. Your code should not construct any actual trees; its just a counting problem. int countTrees(int numKeys) { Binary Search Tree Checking (for problems 13 and 14) This background is used by the next two problems: Given a plain binary tree, examine the tree to determine if it meets the requirement to be a binary search tree. To be a binary search tree, for every node, all of the nodes in its left tree must be the node. Con sider the following four examples a. 2 5 / 7 - TRUE b. 6 5 / 7 - FALSE, because the 6 is not ok to the left of the 5 c. 5 - TRUE / 2 7 / 1 d. 5 - FALSE, the 6 is ok with the 2, but the 6 is not ok with the 5 / 2 7 / 1 6 For the first two cases, the right answer can be seen just by comparing each node to the two nodes immediately below it. However, the fourth case shows how checking the BST quality may depend on nodes which are several layers apart the 5 and the 6 in that case. 3 isBST() version 1 Suppose you have helper functions minValue() and maxValue() that return the min or max int value from a non-empty tree (see problem 3 above). Write an isBST() function that returns true if a tree is a binary search tree and false otherwise. Use the helper functions, and dont forget to check every node in the tree. Its ok if your solution is not very efficient. (Thanks to Owen Astrachan for the idea of having this problem, and comparing it to problem 14) Returns true if a binary tree is a binary search tree. int isBST(struct node* node) { 4. isBST() version 2 https://cslibrary. stanford. edu/110/ BinaryTrees. html Binary Trees Page: 10 Version 1 above runs slowly since it traverses over some parts of the tree many times. A better solution looks at each node only once. The trick is to write a utility helper function isBSTRecur(struct node* node, int min, int max) that traverses down the tree keeping track of the narrowing min and max allowed values as it goes, looking at each node only once. The initial values for min and max should be INT_MIN and INT_MAX they narrow from there. * Returns true if the given tree is a binary search tree (efficient version). */ int isBST2(struct node* node) { return(isBSTRecur(node, INT_MIN, INT_MAX)); } /* Returns true if the given tree is a BST and its values are = min and left = lChild; root-right= rChild; return(root); } // call newNode() three times, and use only one local variable struct node* build123b() { struct node* root = ne wNode(2); root-left = newNode(1); root-right = newNode(3); return(root); } https://cslibrary. stanford. du/110/ BinaryTrees. html Binary Trees Page: 11 /* Build 123 by calling insert() three times. Note that the 2 must be inserted first. */ struct node* build123c() { struct node* root = NULL; root = insert(root, 2); root = insert(root, 1); root = insert(root, 3); return(root); } 2. size() Solution (C/C++) /* Compute the number of nodes in a tree. */ int size(struct node* node) { if (node==NULL) { return(0); } else { return(size(node-left) + 1 + size(node-right)); } } 3. maxDepth() Solution (C/C++) * Compute the maxDepth of a tree the number of nodes along the longest path from the root node down to the farthest leaf node. */ int maxDepth(struct node* node) { if (node==NULL) { return(0); } else { // compute the depth of each subtree int lDepth = maxDepth(node-left); int rDepth = maxDepth(node-right); // use the larger one if (lDepth rDepth) return(lDepth+1); else return(rDepth+1); } } 4. minValue() Solution (C/C++) /* Given a non-empty binary search tree, return the minimum data value found in that tree. https://cslibrary. stanford. du/110/ BinaryTrees. html Binary Trees Page: 12 Note that the entire tree does not need to be searched. */ int minValue(struct node* node) { struct node* current = node; // loop down to find the leftmost leaf while (current-left ! = NULL) { current = current-left; } return(current-data); } 5. printTree() Solution (C/C++) /* Given a binary search tree, print out its data elements in increasing sorted order. */ void printTree(struct node* node) { if (node == NULL) return; printTree(node-left); printf(%d , node-data); printTree(node-right); } . printPostorder() Solution (C/C++) /* Given a binary tree, print its nodes according to the bottom-up postorder traversal. */ void printPostorder(struct node* node) { if (node == NULL) return; // first recur on both subtrees printTree(node-left); printTree(node-right); // then deal with the nod e printf(%d , node-data); } 7. hasPathSum() Solution (C/C++) /* Given a tree and a sum, return true if there is a path from the root down to a leaf, such that adding up all the values along the path equals the given sum. ttp://cslibrary. stanford. edu/110/ BinaryTrees. html Binary Trees Page: 13 Strategy: subtract the node value from the sum when recurring down, and check to see if the sum is 0 when you run out of tree. */ int hasPathSum(struct node* node, int sum) { // return true if we run out of tree and sum==0 if (node == NULL) { return(sum == 0); } else { // otherwise check both subtrees int subSum = sum node-data; return(hasPathSum(node-left, subSum) || hasPathSum(node-right, subSum)); } } . printPaths() Solution (C/C++) /* Given a binary tree, print out all of its root-to-leaf paths, one per line. Uses a recursive helper to do the work. */ void printPaths(struct node* node) { int path[1000]; printPathsRecur(node, path, 0); } /* Recursive helper function given a node, and an array containing the path from the root node up to but not including this node, print out all the root-leaf paths. / void printPathsRecur(struct node* node, int path[], int pathLen) { if (node==NULL) return; // append this node to the path array path[pathLen] = node-data; pathLen++; // its a leaf, so print the path that led to here if (node-left==NULL node-right==NULL) { printArray(path, pathLen); } else { // otherwise try both subtrees printPathsRecur(node-left, path, pathLen); printPathsRecur(node-right, path, pathLen); } } // Utility that prints out an array on a line. oid printArray(int ints[], int len) { int i; for (i=0; ileft); mirror(node-right); // swap the pointers in this node temp = node-left; node-left = node-right; node-right = temp; } } 10. doubleTree() Solution (C/C++) /* For each node in a binary search tree, create a new duplicate node, and insert the duplicate as the left child of the original node. The resulting tree should still be a binary search tree. So the tree 2 / https://cslibrary. stanford. edu/110/ BinaryTrees. html Binary Trees Page: 15 1 3 Is changed to / 2 3 / / 1 3 / 1 */ void doubleTree(struct node* node) { struct node* oldLeft; if (node==NULL) return; // do the subtrees doubleTree(node-left); doubleTree(node-right); // duplicate this node to its left oldLeft = node-left; node-left = newNode(node-data); node-left-left = oldLeft; } 11. sameTree() Solution (C/C++) /* Given two trees, return true if they are structurally identical. */ int sameTree(struct node* a, struct node* b) { // 1. both empty - true if (a==NULL b==NULL) return(true); // 2. oth non-empty - compare them else if (a! =NULL b! =NULL) { return( a-data == b-data sameTree(a-left, b-left) sameTree(a-right, b-right) ); } // 3. one empty, one not - false else return(false); } 12. countTrees() Solution (C/C++) /* For the key values 1 numKeys, how many structurally unique https://cslibrary. stanford. edu/110/ BinaryTrees. html Binary Trees Page: 16 binary search tre es are possible that store those keys. Strategy: consider that each value could be the root. Recursively find the size of the left and right subtrees. */ int countTrees(int numKeys) { if (numKeys left! =NULL minValue(node-left) node-data) return(false); // false if the max of the right is right! =NULL maxValue(node-right) data) return(false); // false if, recursively, the left or right is not a BST if (! isBST(node-left) || !isBST(node-right)) return(false); // passing all that, its a BST return(true); } https://cslibrary. stanford. edu/110/ BinaryTrees. html Binary Trees Page: 17 4. isBST2() Solution (C/C++) /* Returns true if the given tree is a binary search tree (efficient version). */ int isBST2(struct node* node) { return(isBSTUtil(node, INT_MIN, INT_MAX)); } /* Returns true if the given tree is a BST and its values are = min and datadatamax) return(false); // otherwise check the subtrees recursively, // tightening the min or max constraint return isBSTUtil(node-left, mi n, node-data) isBSTUtil(node-right, node-data+1, max) ); } 15. TreeList Solution (C/C++) The solution code in C and Java to the great Tree-List recursion problem is in CSLibrary #109 https://cslibrary. stanford. edu/109/ Section 4 Java Binary Trees and Solutions In Java, the key points in the recursion are exactly the same as in C or C++. In fact, I created the Java solutions by just copying the C solutions, and then making the syntactic changes. The recursion is the same, however the outer structure is slightly different. In Java, we will have a BinaryTree object that contains a single root pointer. The root pointer points to an internal Node class that behaves just like the node struct in the C/C++ version. The Node class is private it is used only for internal storage inside the BinaryTree and is not exposed to clients. With this OOP structure, almost every operation has two methods: a one-line method on the BinaryTree that starts the computation, and a recursive method that works on the Node objects. For the lookup() operation, there is a BinaryTree. lookup() method that the client uses to start a lookup operation. Internal to the BinaryTree class, there is a private recursive lookup(Node) method that implements the recursion down the Node structure. This second, private recursive method is basically the same as the recursive C/C++ functions above it takes a Node argument and uses recursion to iterate over the pointer structure. Java Binary Tree Structure To get started, here are the basic definitions for the Java BinaryTree class, and the lookup() and insert() methods as examples https://cslibrary. stanford. edu/110/ BinaryTrees. html Binary Trees Page: 18 // BinaryTree. ava public class BinaryTree { // Root node pointer. Will be null for an empty tree. private Node root; /* Node-The binary tree is built using this nested node class. Each node stores one data element, and has left and right sub-tree pointer which may be null. The node is a du mb nested class we just use it for storage; it does not have any methods. */ private static class Node { Node left; Node right; int data; Node(int newData) { left = null; right = null; data = newData; } } /** Creates an empty binary tree a null root pointer. / public void BinaryTree() { root = null; } /** Returns true if the given target is in the binary tree. Uses a recursive helper. */ public boolean lookup(int data) { return(lookup(root, data)); } /** Recursive lookup given a node, recur down searching for the given data. */ private boolean lookup(Node node, int data) { if (node==null) { return(false); } if (data==node. data) { return(true); } else if (data false else return(false); } 12. countTrees() Solution (Java) Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Binary Tree" essay for you Create order